3 Statements are very much like C statements. Most statements act
4 identically to those in C, but there are minor differences and
5 some additions. The following is a list of the statement types,
6 with explanation of the non-C statements. In this list, upper
7 case words identify the keywords which are actually in lower case.
8 Statements are generally terminated with semicolons, except if the
9 statement is the compound one formed by matching braces. Various
10 expressions are optional and may be omitted (as in RETURN).
16 { statement; ... statement }
18 if (expr) statement ELSE statement
19 for (optionalexpr ; optionalexpr ; optionalexpr) statement
20 while (expr) statement
21 do statement while (expr)
25 These all work like in normal C.
27 See 'help expression' for details on expressions.
28 See 'help builtin' for details on calc builtin functions.
34 return ( optionalexpr )
35 This returns a value from a function. Functions always
36 have a return value, even if this statement is not used.
37 If no return statement is executed, or if no expression
38 is specified in the return statement, then the return
39 value from the function is the null type.
44 switch (expr) { caseclauses }
45 Switch statements work similarly to C, except for the
46 following. A switch can be done on any type of value,
47 and the case statements can be of any type of values.
48 The case statements can also be expressions calculated
49 at runtime. The calculator compares the switch value
50 with each case statement in the order specified, and
51 selects the first case which matches. The default case
52 is the exception, and only matches once all other cases
58 mat variable [dimension] [dimension] ...
59 mat variable [dimension, dimension, ...]
60 mat variable [] = { value, ... }
61 This creates a matrix variable with the specified dimensions.
62 Matrices can have from 1 to 4 dimensions. When specifying
63 multiple dimensions, you can use either the standard C syntax,
64 or else you can use commas for separating the dimensions.
65 For example, the following two statements are equivalent,
66 and so will create the same two dimensional matrix:
71 By default, each dimension is indexed starting at zero,
72 as in normal C, and contains the specified number of
73 elements. However, this can be changed if a colon is
74 used to separate two values. If this is done, then the
75 two values become the lower and upper bounds for indexing.
76 This is convenient, for example, to create matrices whose
77 first row and column begin at 1. Examples of matrix
80 mat x[3] one dimension, bounds are 0-2
81 mat foo[4][5] two dimensions, bounds are 0-3 and 0-4
82 mat a[-7:7] one dimension, bounds are (-7)-7
83 mat s[1:9,1:9] two dimensions, bounds are 1-9 and 1-9
85 Note that the MAT statement is not a declaration, but is
86 executed at runtime. Within a function, the specified
87 variable must already be defined, and is just converted to
88 a matrix of the specified size, and all elements are set
89 to the value of zero. For convenience, at the top level
90 command level, the MAT command automatically defines a
91 global variable of the specified name if necessary.
93 Since the MAT statement is executed, the bounds on the
94 matrix can be full expressions, and so matrices can be
95 dynamically allocated. For example:
100 allocates a matrix which can be indexed from 0 to 39.
102 Initial values for the elements of a matrix can be specified
103 by following the bounds information with an equals sign and
104 then a list of values enclosed in a pair of braces. Even if
105 the matrix has more than one dimension, the elements must be
106 specified as a linear list. If too few values are specified,
107 the remaining values are set to zero. If too many values are
108 specified, a runtime error will result. Examples of some
111 mat table1[5] = {77, 44, 22};
112 mat table2[2,2] = {1, 2, 3, 4};
114 When an initialization is done, the bounds of the matrix
115 can optionally be left out of the square brackets, and the
116 correct bounds (zero based) will be set. This can only be
117 done for one-dimensional matrices. An example of this is:
119 mat fred[] = {99, 98, 97};
121 The MAT statement can also be used in declarations to set
122 variables as being matrices from the beginning. For example:
125 static mat strtable[] = {"hi", "there", "folks");
130 obj type { elementnames } optionalvariables
132 These create a new object type, or create one or more
133 variables of the specified type. For this calculator,
134 an object is just a structure which is implicitly acted
135 on by user defined routines. The user defined routines
136 implement common operations for the object, such as plus
137 and minus, multiply and divide, comparison and printing.
138 The calculator will automatically call these routines in
139 order to perform many operations.
141 To create an object type, the data elements used in
142 implementing the object are specified within a pair
143 of braces, separated with commas. For example, to
144 define an object will will represent points in 3-space,
145 whose elements are the three coordinate values, the
146 following could be used:
150 This defines an object type called point, whose elements
151 have the names x, y, and z. The elements are accessed
152 similarly to structure element accesses, by using a period.
153 For example, given a variable 'v' which is a point object,
154 the three coordinates of the point can be referenced by:
160 A particular object type can only be defined once, and
161 is global throughout all functions. However, different
162 object types can be used at the same time.
164 In order to create variables of an object type, they
165 can either be named after the right brace of the object
166 creation statement, or else can be defined later with
167 another obj statement. To create two points using the
168 second (and most common) method, the following is used:
172 This statement is executed, and is not a declaration.
173 Thus within a function, the variables p1 and p2 must have
174 been previously defined, and are just changed to be the
175 new object type. For convenience, at the top level command
176 level, object variables are automatically defined as being
177 global when necessary.
179 Initial values for an object can be specified by following
180 the variable name by an equals sign and a list of values
181 enclosed in a pair of braces. For example:
183 obj point pt = {5, 6};
185 The OBJ statement can also be used in declarations to set
186 variables as being objects from the beginning. If multiple
187 variables are specified, then each one is defined as the
188 specified object type. Examples of declarations are:
190 local obj point temp1;
191 static obj point temp2 = {4, 3};
192 global obj point p1, p2, p3;
200 For interactive expression evaluation, the values of all
201 typed-in expressions are automatically displayed to the
202 user. However, within a function or loop, the printing of
203 results must be done explicitly. This can be done using
204 the 'printf' or 'fprintf' functions, as in standard C, or
205 else by using the built-in 'print' statement. The advantage
206 of the print statement is that a format string is not needed.
207 Instead, the given values are simply printed with zero or one
208 spaces between each value.
210 Print accepts a list of expressions, separated either by
211 commas or colons. Each expression is evaluated in order
212 and printed, with no other output, except for the following
213 special cases. The comma which separates expressions prints
214 a single space, and a newline is printed after the last
215 expression unless the statement ends with a colon. As
218 print 3, 4; prints "3 4" and newline.
219 print 5:; prints "5" with no newline.
220 print 'a' : 'b' , 'c'; prints "ab c" and newline.
221 print; prints a newline.
223 For numeric values, the format of the number depends on the
224 current "mode" configuration parameter. The initial mode
225 is to print real numbers, but it can be changed to other
226 modes such as exponential, decimal fractions, or hex.
228 If a matrix or list is printed, then the elements contained
229 within the matrix or list will also be printed, up to the
230 maximum number specified by the "maxprint" configuration
231 parameter. If an element is also a matrix or a list, then
232 their values are not recursively printed. Objects are printed
233 using their user-defined routine. Printing a file value
234 prints the name of the file that was opened.
237 Also see the help topic:
239 command top level commands
240 expression calc expression syntax
241 builtin calc builtin functions
242 usage how to invoke the calc command and calc -options